Chapter 50

This chapter discusses the ideas of Stuart Hall, a well known British scholar. In the excerpt he argues that "difference" is a key aspect of the way we make sense of the world. He also explains four different theories which explain "difference", which according to Hall is involved in how people find meaning in the world. The four ways he describes include linguistic, social, cultural, and psychic levels. Hall helps explain the first theory by citing Saussure. Saussure believed that meaning comes from the relationship that exists between concepts. For example we know what the color black looks like because we contrast it against white. Another theory works off the ideas of Mikhail Bhaktin, who argued that meaning comes from dialogue (dialogism). He makes it a point to explain that when people converse, they must keep in mind what is currently being said and what is probably going to be said. The third idea explaining difference involves the ideas of Mary Douglas, Emile Durkheim, and Claude Levi-Strauss. According to these theorists, difference is necessary because it is behind the classification systems that we make sense of the world. The fourth and final theory of difference involves psychology and stems from the role of others in our psychic lives. According to Freud, the way we define ourselves as human beings comes from our childhood. Difference focuses on the ways people strive to find meaning in relationships, objects, works of art and life.

Chapter 49

This chapter focuses on the ideas of Marx theorist Guy Debord and the role of media, popular culture and other forms of representation in justifying the status quo. Debord believes that life is now dominated by an endless succession of spectacles and we are now moved by representation rather than direct experience. He argues that images have taken over our lives and that now unreal aspects of life are now more important than real life experiences. According to Debord, the term spectacle, is not just a series of images, but the social relationships that exist among people that are mediated by these images. He goes on to discuss how the dominant class creates these images that control the rest of society and create false consciousness that runs throughout the common people. The "spectacles" or images are created by a group of artists and workers who are controlled by the dominating class. In fact Marx himself, argued that the ideas of the ruling class are always the ideas of the masses, because they control the media and can shape the ideas of society. I am somewhat confused by what Debord has to say in regards to the spectacle dominating a person's life. He does not cite any specific examples of this, which would help.

Chapter 48

Susan Sontag, author of Against Interpretation, describes interpretation as a conscious act of the mind, which illustrates a certain code, certain "rules" of interpretation. She believes there was an old way of interpreting works of art and now there is a different way. According to Sontag, the old way was insistent, but respectful. The new way of interpretation excavates, while at the same time destroying. She also mentions how human beings have begun to develop theories that explain many different phenomena from many different perspectives. The two perspectives mentioned in the chapter by Sontag are the psychoanalytic and the Marxist perspective. The psychoanalytic perspective argues that everything has manifest and latent functions; the manifest content being what happens in a story and the latent being what the events of the story mean and how they affect the reader. The Marxist perspective ties works of art to political and ideological considerations, arguing that these works are manipulated by the "ruling" class which often spreads "false consciousness" in the masses. Sontag argues that interpretation is the "revenge of the intellect upon art", however that is only true because human beings have intellects and feel it necessary to use them whenever possible.

Chapter 47

Since we may never be able to decide what art is, this chapter focuses on what art's function are and what they have been over the years. The chapter discusses four main functions of art that have been around for many years, including substitute imagery (photos, imagery, and other things that capture reality), illustration (works that tell stories or help to tell stories), conviction and persuasion (works that show beliefs, sell products), and beautification (works that please the mind and gratify the mind). According to Gowan, these functions help us to better understand art and are the only important functions in art. He believes that the styles of art may change over time, but the functions of art will always remain the same. In the chapter, Berger also compares the four functions of art with the four theories of art. He believes that substitute imagery is similar to the mimetic theory of art, illustration is similar to the objective theory of art, persuasion is similar to the pragmatic theory of art, and that beautification is similar to the emotive theory of art. People have spent thousands of years speculating on what art is, but in this chapter Gowan helps by discussing the functions of art and what art does.

Chapter 44

It must be pointed out in this chapter that Simon Lesser's views on fiction can be applied to all art forms and texts in media. Berger first discusses how criticism is always tied to the ideology of beliefs of the critic. This is the reason for many of the different types of critics we see and hear about today. According to Lesser, Psychoanalytic criticism, which focuses on the human psyche, the unconscious, various drives and mechanisms we use to keep our balance, has a large role to play because it explains the "secret significance" of stories and other texts and helps explain some of the inconscious reasons of why art speaks to us in the way it does. Lesser goes on to explain that we feel pleasure from understanding the hidden meanings in texts. He believes there is a certain type of communication from the unconscious of the artists of the texts to the unconscious of the readers and viewers of these texts. Works of art help a person deal with the ongoing conflict betweent the id and the superego, between a person's desire for pleasure and feelings of guilt. All types of art help a person deal with the feeling of unsatisfaction that is felt at every stage in life. The arts, provide for a more harmonious world, all the while helping people conquer different stages of life.

Chapter 28

In this chapter, Ian Watt's views on the novel Robinson Crusoe being classified as a myth are discussed. Watt begins his excerpt by describing the the three great myths of our civilization; Faust, Don Juan, and Don Quixote. All three of these myths exhibit a single-minded pursuit by a character including one of the characteristic aspirations of Western man. Faust, the single-minded pursuit of knowledge, Don Juan the single-minded pursuit of women and Don Quixote, the single-minded pursuit of chivalric ideal. Watt believes Robinson Crusoe can easily be compared to all three of these as his story is also based on the single-minded pursuit of something, in his case, the pursuit of achievement and enterprise. According to Watt, Robinson Crusoe, deals with three important themes found in modern civilization; back to nature, the dignity of labor, and the pursuit of economic gain. Not only do Crusoe's adventures reflect all three of these, but they also teach reader's to accept these values. In most cases, the readers tends to become one with the characters they see in movies or read about in books, therefore readers naturally accept the values put forth in Robinson Crusoe. Watt also points out an interesting assertion he made. "It is not an author, but a society that metamorphoses a story into a myth". He believes it is the public who has turned Robinson Crusoe into a myth, as it reflects the public's deeply held but unconscious beliefs and values. Writers often times have a good idea of what they are writing about, but they cannot perceive how the public will respond to it.

Hot Media

Cold Media

Chapter 43

This chapter discusses the power of art and the impact it has on people's lives. The excerpt was written by Yuri Lotman, who has written many books on the semiotics of film and other aspects of culture. This chapter explains why a person feels pleasure or can be entertained from seeing a movie many times or reading a book several different times. This can also be said for listening to music over and over again. Lotman explains that works of art are very "dense" and when a person reads a book or watches a movie for the first time, they "skim" over the information, not taking into account all of what was written or seen. Each time we see the film or read the book, we extract more information from it than we did the last time. This is a process that is never ending. Some critics believe that popular art is a much weaker form of art, as it doesn't help people deal with unconscious problems and gain an understanding of what it is to be human. This is opinion based, however Berger argues that elite art continues to be meaningful to people hundreds and even thousands of years after they were created, while most popular art tends to be discarded after short periods of time. When asked whether I would listen to music I know well or music I had never heard before, I believe it would depend on the situation. When I am trying to focus on something I would want to listen to something I already know, but different times I like to look for new music to add to my collection. One movie I've seen more than once is National Lampoon Christmas Vacation. I saw it again because it is extremely funny and it fits in perfectly with the holiday season. I think it got better the more times I saw it because I caught more of the punch lines.

Chapter 42

This chapter focuses on rock music and discusses the power behind not only the sound of the music, but the words within the songs as well. One argument brought up in the excerpt is that critics of rock music often make the mistake of focusing too much attention on the words of the songs and not enough on the music. Lyrics are often simple, however when music is added it changes the entire situation due to the emotion that is generated by the music itself. The impact of this rock music is very powerful. The size, lighting, power of amplification and some of the rituals in different rock concerts suggests this power is ever increasing. People are drawn to music of all genres because they want to experience the emotions and feel the passion in the music and in the voices of the singers. This conclusion may explain why music plays such a large role in the lives of younger people. Younger people relate to a lot of their favorite artists and it may help them get through different periods in their lives. I agree with him on this fact, as I personally listen to a certain type of music depending on my mood at the time. The music I listen to definitely shows the type of mood I am in at a certain time. Berger compares this to an earlier chapter where he explains that children cope with many of the stresses in their lives through fairy tales. Berger concludes the chapter by saying that he believes it is not only the quality of a singer's voice that is important, but the lyrics of the songs and the actual music is just as important.

Chapter 32

In this chapter, Jack Solomon shares his views on the postmodern world. He argues that new age technologies, one being television, has robbed people of the narratives that make life worth living. People now see the world through a "postmodern eye", viewing the world as a television camera views it. The perception created is that of one big variety show. Narratives, he argues, give meaning to life and because of these new digital technologies, our lives have become "decentered". He goes on to say that narratives have the power to make order out of chaos and create meaning from the blur of events that make up a person's life. Without these narratives, none of the events throughout life contain meaning anymore. This is why he believes life has become "meaningless". I think, along with many of the chapters in this book, this chapter is very radical. I do think new technologies have changed how people view the world, however I do not think life is meaningless because of it. In most cases, it has helped us better understand many of the things happening in the world today.

Chapter 31

This chapter discusses the ideas of author Frederic Jameson. He describes a change in culture that has taken place since about 1960, when postmodernism started to replace modernism within American society. Berger uses the differing styles in architecture to compare the two ideas. Modernist architecture is very formal, unified and simple, while postmodernist buildings are made up of many different architectural styles. The chapter also includes a chart that compares some of the ideas between the two different cultures. Modernism is made up of a unified style, it is hierarchical, harmonious, separates high culture from pop culture and also includes "serious" art, as well as a classical music style. Postmodernism, on the other hand, has a fragmented style, is very eclectic, anarchical, combines high culture with pop culture, and includes a "punk" music style along with Schlock art. Jameson believes that as the world has progressed, anything goes because there is no difference between high culture art and popular culture anymore. He also argues that the world is now made up of a "degraded" postmodernism landscape dominated by television series, motel design and advertising. I believe he is referring to the power of media in today's society. Television and advertising are very powerful and have the ability to control the world's view on society.

Chapter 46

In this chapter, Aristotle's ideas about tragedy and comedy are discussed. According to Aristotle, art should be seen as an imitation of life, this is known as the mimetic theory of art and states that art imitates reality. Art imitates "men in action", and these men are either "high types", whose actions are portrayed in tragedies, or "low types", whose actions are portrayed in comedies. The debate in this chapter deals with the effects of televised violence on an audience. One side argues that televised violence leads to antisocial behavior and imitation of this violence. The other side of the argument believes that this televised violence "purges" the audience of these hostile feelings of emotion, thus leading to less violence. This is what is known as the catharsis theory. According to different research, televised violence does lead to increased violence, though it sometimes takes years for it to manifest within a person and not all people are affected by it. Later in the chapter, there is a comparison of tragedy and comedy. Tragedy contains men higher than ordinary, a higher status, determinism, high seriousness, pessimism, pain and catharsis. A comedy contains men lower than ordinary, a lower status, freedom, not serious at all, optimism, pleasure and cathexis. Cathexis is a release of pent up energy that is a celebration, while catharsis deals with the experience of deep emotions in the tragic fate of heroes and heroins.

Chapter 45

This chapter deals with the ideas of William Fry, a Stanford psychiatrist who has done important work on the subject of humor. He argues that humor usually involves some sort of a frame. This frame indicates that the comedian does not really mean all of the nasty things he says in his jokes. Humor differs from many other things, as it involves a punch line. Punch lines are essential and there are no rules surrounding them. A punch line can consist of anything from words, sounds, movements, gestures, an expression, or even a situation. In fact, jokes can be defined as short stories with a punch line. Another term defined in the chapter is metacommunication, which is communication about communication. Through metacommunication, people who go to see a comedy know what to expect and not become angry over a comedians use of certain jokes. Sigmund Freud agreed with this as he argued that humor involved masked or hidden aggression. In this case, the humor prevents our superego from taking what was said seriously. On the other side of the argument, Aristotle and Hobbes believed that humor is based more on a sense of superiority and we laugh at people who have been made fun of. Berger goes on to discuss his own work on humor, which focuses on what makes people laugh and the 45 building blocks to humor.

Chapter 37

In this chapter, the ideas of sociologist Gustave Le Bon are discussed. Le Bon was very interested in images and the way “theatrical representations” impact the audience. Today, these “theatrical representations”, which can be found in mass-media (films, television, and video), influence crowds, audiences and public opinion. Le Bon believes that appearances play a much bigger role than reality, which implies that people feel the same emotions at the same time when they are exposed to songs they hear on the radio, see a television show on TV, or read a book. However, this has been replaced by the more recent “reception theory”. This theory argues that humans interpret mass-mediated texts differently based on our education, social background, and knowledge base. There are examples of times when humans do have a similar understanding of ideas, such as facial expression and body language. This allows people to interpret and understand simple things in a similar manner. Although Le Bon may have been wrong about people interpreting images in the same way, he was correct about the power of these texts and how they impact a crowd. I couldn’t agree with the end result of this chapter more. I thought Le Bon’s ideas on how people viewed an image and felt the same emotion were not correct, however the power of images is incredible. A person’s background plays a huge role in how a person feels about a certain text.

Chapter 36

In this chapter,the ideas of Howard Rheingold are discussed. He is one of the leading observers of the role new technologies are playing in modern society. He uses the term "smart mobs" to describe a new way of life that uses technology and has not yet reached it's full potential within society. These "smart mobs" are made up of radio chips replacing bar codes, wireless internet hot spots in cafes, hotels and neighborhoods, the way buyers and sellers rate each other on internet auction sites and one of the bigger components, texting from mobile phones. The technical definition for a "smart mob" is a group of people who organize themselves for social and political purposes through their common use of cell phones and text messaaging. Rheingold describes an experience in his life where he witnessed many people looking down at their cell phones sending text messages, instead of talking into them. In many cases the sender of the text message did not even have to look at what they were typing, allowing them to multitask. However, the most impactful idea that can be taken from this experience and "smart mobs", as described by Rheingold, is the societal changes that this technological revolution will bring about. The more significant changes will be found in the relationships, enterprises, communities, and markets that this new technology makes possible. I believe technology is definitely changing the way people live today. Text messaging is a huge example of this as people have begun to form their relationships through digital media and have lost the face-to-experience. Technology has taken over a large part of our lives.

Paper Introductary Paragraph

Digital media is heading down a path that will lead to the destruction of the human race as we know it. In today’s society, adults watch an average of four hours of television every single day, leading some to believe that people are beginning to entertain themselves to death. Immersive games, interactive television and online entertainment are all creating an atmosphere or type of environment which isn’t completely real, but rather a figment of virtual reality. The people who create and control these technologies hold the key to the future. The question that should be asked more frequently is whether or not we want to live in a society where technology has more control over the human mind than we do ourselves.

Chapter 41

Author Martin Esslin believes television is a medium dominated by narratives that have the power to shape our behavior and desires and is used by corporations selling products and services to do so. The statistics are amazing. Americans watch an average of four hours of television every day, which means that watching television is the dominant leisure activity for most people. Esslin goes on to discuss how some television viewers tend to think of actors and actresses they watch as somebody they know. This is called a parasocial relationship and it suggests that something is missing in the lives of people who have these illusions. The topics covered by narratives on television range from full-fledged violence to sexual innuendo. Narratives can be found everywhere and we should be alarmed by what they are doing to us as a society.

Chapter 40

In this chapter, the ideas of French social scientist Michel de Certeau are discussed. De Certeau believes the content of the media for the most part is narratives. Narratives (stories) can be found in all types of media from journalism to television. As mentioned in previous chapters, people relate a lot of the things in their lives to stories and it is a way to express oneself. De Certeau uses the term imprint to describe how the different narratives we see and hear affect us. He also mentions how different narratives are used in order to help people deal with needs they may have. This can also be related to a previous chapter in which Bruno Bettelheim discusses how fairy tales play an important role in young children’s lives in dealing with unconscious problems they may face. Narratives come in the form of many different genres as well, however it is important to realize that different genres all have a narrative structure to them that play a role in shaping a person’s ideas and attitudes.

Chapter 39 11/12

In this chapter, Neil Postman discusses how dangerous television has become, especially in American society where the average person watches 4 hours of television every day. He believes that because of television, we have lost our sense of strangeness of the world. He also mentions the world epistemology, which is the role television plays in making people see the world in the way the television presents it. Television was created to entertain us and Postman believes that it is entertaining us to death as it transforms our society. Later in his essay, postman compares the role of shopping and television. Thanks to television, we as humans need to be entertained and amused at all times. We view a great amount of commercials on TV that inform and instruct us on what products or services to buy, then after being amused and sold on a particular view, we go out and shop for these products. Shopping has become a form of entertainment as well. I feel that both TV and shopping have become a type of drug that brings out a certain emotion in people that they can't get enough of. Many social scientists have warned people about the ever-looming danger that they felt television would someday create, however it has not stopped the amount of television we watch as a society.

Chapter 38 11/12

In this chapter, psychiatrist Martin Gratjahn argues that television has not achieved its potential as a medium and instead has become another means of exposing viewers to commercials. I do not fully agree with this statement. There is a great deal of "garbage" on television, however there are certain channels that focus on worldly and educational topics that informs its viewers, such as CNN or MSNBC. He later contrasts art and television and argues that television is harming its audience by helping them to avoid coming to terms with their unconscious tension and other such phenomena in a persons life. He also adds that television is taking over our youths lives, as it consumes over 1/6 of a child's day. It should be noted that he wrote this article 30 years ago and that he would have to consider video games, computers and other electronic devices that exist in today's world. When comparing art and television, he described how art worked through unconscious conflicts, comparable to television distracting us from our conflicts. Art also deals with tensions about psychic phenomena, compared to people paying attention to commercials. Finally, art participates in facing the repressed, while television presents a show that amuses. If TV is a collective dream, what does this tell us about the psyche of the people watching it? Gratjahn believes television is taking over our lives and distracting us from coming to terms with the unconscious tensions within our minds.

Chapter 33 11/10

Are our thoughts really our own? This is the question asked in the beginning of the chapter written by Hans Magnus Enzenberger. She argues that while humans go about life thinking that their thoughts are their own, their minds have really been “industrialized” by the society in which it is in. What she is saying is that people’s thoughts are influenced by the environment in which they live in. This subject has been approached previously in this book by French sociologist Emile Durkheim who said that individuals exist in society and society exists in individuals. In the chapter, Enzenberger discusses how people tend to only focus on a certain aspect of the media without recognizing that something deeper has occurred due to the mind being “industrialized”. Thus it can be seen that media has influenced our minds greatly, while people go on thinking that their ideas and thoughts will never be touched. Enzenberger asks where new ideas come from if minds have been taken over by the media. It is believed that thought is social and heavily influenced by previous thinkers, however I can believe Enzenberger’s claim that some minds are less influenced and “industrialized” by the media than others and therefore think outside of the box.

Chapter 29 11/3

In this chapter, Bruno Bettelheim discusses the idea of fairy tales and compares them to myths. Fairy tales come from ancient times and have been changed by the teller of the story over their existence until they have been modified into a form that help the child deal with psychological pressures they deal with while growing up. Bettelheim also argues that these fairy tales are much different from other stories that have a long and ancient lineage, myths. According to the chapter, fairy tales are more indirect, include ordinary heroes and heroines, contain a simple presentation and have a happy ending. Myths are more direct, include superhuman characters, make demands on the reader, and have a tragic ending. Myths tend to be more pessimistic, while fairy tales are more pessimistic. Bettelheim even points out how Freud’s analysis of the psyche plays a role in both fairy tales and the myth. Myths, says Bettelheim, contain characters dominated by the demands of their superegos. Fairy tales integrate the ego and make it possible for the unconscious id desires to be felt by the child listening to the story. One point I found interesting in the reading is that we, as human beings, deal with pressure differently throughout life. As children, we deal with pressures by relating to these fairy tales, however as more mature adults, we use humor to cope with daily pressures.

Chapter 27 11/1

In this chapter, the ideas of the literary and culture theorist Roland Barthes are discussed. The excerpt in the chapter was taken from one of his most well known books, Mythologies. Unlike many other theorists, Barthes emphasizes the hidden ideological content of such things as televised professional wrestling, toys, margarine and plastic. In the second section of the book, Barthes argues that “myth is not defined by the object of its message, but by the way it utters this message”. In this quote, he is saying a myth should not be defined by the idea it is trying to bring forth, but rather on HOW it brings this message out. In the next part of his book, Barthes describes aspects of everyday things that we usually overlook. When discussing soap powders and detergents, he points out that one particular product claims to clean “deep”. This suggests that the linens the powder cleans are deep, however we all know this is not the case as linens are very thin. The important thing we can take from Barthes is to look at texts, rituals and objects as signs, as they all have meanings that can be deciphered. I agree with Barthes in this sense because I believe everything has some type of meaning to us and as a semiotician we must figure it out. However, there are definitely objects in everyday life that we tend to overlook that may have some type of explicit meaning.

Chapter 26 10/28

In this chapter, Haug’s ideas on the power of advertising are discussed. He believes humans have been reduced to objects, no different from something like peanut butter or soap. Haug argues that these items need to be packaged correctly in order for them to sell and through the power of advertising, this is now what many people believe about themselves as well. People want to “package” themselves as best as possible in order to get the best job or find the best sexual partner. An advertisement from a magazine reads, “You can sell yourself better in a new suit”. This gets people to think they need the newest and most high quality suit in the store in order to make themselves look good. The author points out that today, sellers of items have used aesthetics to seduce us into believing what they are selling. He also mentions the fact that consumption is no longer a task for the stores, but has turned into a source of pleasure for many as they try to improve their appearance, which makes shopping a way of enjoying oneself.

Chapter 24 10/28

In this chapter, Harvey Cox’s ideas and the symbolic significance of the “American girl” are discussed. As mentioned in previous chapters, a hero plays an important role in all people’s lives as they connect us to the unconscious psyche within our minds. However, in this chapter, the author believes girls in such pageants as Miss America or Miss Universe, who were once looked upon as goddesses are now being overlooked by more prominent female icons, such as Britney Spears and Madonna. Miss America used to represent a type of innocent “virginal” girl, but has now been replaced by women who exploit themselves sexually with the hopes of selling more albums or music videos. Miss America also used to symbolize the All-American girl, who was an icon in American society. The term paradigmatic figure is also used to describe the pageant queen. This term is used to describe people that are exemplary and models for the rest of us to follow. Another term found in the chapter is mythical motif. This term is used to describe a part of our thoughts and dreams, of the things that we wish were real, but later find to only be in our minds. Paradigmatic figures and images are a part of these mythical motifs, which include the maiden, the hero, hell, etc.

Chapter 22 10/27

In this chapter, the meaning of symbols are discussed by Carl Jung. An important key term from this chapter is symbol, which is defined as something that stands for something else. Semiotician Charles Pierce argues that signs communicate in three ways (resemblance, casual connection, convention). There are also three types of signs, including an icon (resemblance), which you can see, an index (casual connection), which can be figured out, and a symbol (convention), which can be learned. Symbols do not have any meaning by themselves, so we have to give symbols a meaning and teach others what they mean. The meaning of these symbols is shaped by historical events and other things. Humans learn the meaning of these symbols unconsciously and we absorb them as we grow up. Another of Jung’s theories, archetypes, is also discussed. Archetypes are part of the collective unconscious of all people and are universal.

Symbol: American flag

Icon: Mozilla Firefox picture

Index: Books/ School

Chapter 21 10/27

In this chapter, Johan Huizinga’s ideas on the Middle Ages are discussed. He feels that people in this time found significance and meaning in everything because, from their perspective, everything was connected to God. Even if a person wasn’t sure God existed, symbols were still very important, as they connected people to the unconscious ideas in their minds. It is because of this reason, Huizinga suggests, that we need social scientists to recognize the significance of unconscious actions taken by people. I agree with this statement from Huizinga because if people realized the significance of their unconscious actions, the actions would have less meaning as they would not be unconscious. The chapter goes on to give an example of the unconscious actions taken by people and breaks it down into two functions, latent and manifest. Huizinga defines the manifest function as the reason a person gives when they are asked why they did something. The latent function is the unconscious reason we do something. The idea of transcendentalism (simple objects can have a powerful emotional effect on people) is also discussed. Huizinga argues that the most simple objects do a better job of revealing the character of an age than a philosophy. Part of me agrees with this statement, as many times philosophers go so deep into something and often overlook or overanalyze some of the more simple things that may give away something about the character of a person or place.

Chapter 16 10/15

In this chapter, the ideas of Roger Abrahams, a folklorist, are discussed. In particular, he mentions the term regression, which he describes as momentarily returning to our childhood days. He uses this term when describing the language used by African American people in Philadelphia. The example used in the book is when an adult eats an ice cream cone, as it returns a person back to their youth when eating ice cream was very enjoyable. This theory also compares to Mikhail Bahktin’s idea of intertextuality, in which people use sources that have already been created to form and create new texts. Abrahams also discovered that young African Americans were very talented at creating rhymes and inserting them everywhere. There is a clear correlation between this rhyming/verbal dueling and rap music, in which rhymes are given music and set to music.

Chapter 15 10/15

In this chapter, Deborah Tannen discusses her research on communication and how it relates to gender. Specifically, she wanted to research why women who attended all female colleges did better later in life than women who attended coed colleges. She discovered that there is a difference in the way men and women use language in their peer groups. Men tend to be more aggressive and learn to use their language in a competitive setting, while women tend to be less assertive. Women view their best friends as someone that they can share their secrets with, while men view their best friends as people they do activities with. She explains that girls are at a disadvantage in the classroom because men are raised in “adversativeness”, which makes them talk more in class, drowning out the girls. Although, this does not mean all men talk more than all women, it is saying that this is the case most of the time. The ideas of sociologist Charles Winick are also discussed in which he believes sexual identity in America is becoming twisted. This can be seen in the new ways we dance, the names we give our children and current fashions. I believe this is particularly true in fashion as we see many people dressing comparable to the opposite sex not only through mass media, but real life as well.

Chapter 14 10/13

In this passage, Catherine Riessman discusses some basic rules we use in conversation. She believes our conversations usually follow six rules that need to be followed in order to tell a story or narrative. According to Riessman, something is characterized as a narrative if one is always responding to the question, "and then what happened?". The first rule is an ABSTRACT, which gives an overview of the story. The next rule is an ORIENTATION, which tells us the who, what, when and why of the story. The third rule is a COMPLICATING ACTION, which tells us the sequence of events in the story. The next rule is an EVALUATION, which suggests the meaning and importance of the events in the story. The fifth rule is a RESOLUTION, which lets others know how the story ends. The final rule is a CODA, which returns the recitation of the story to the present time. She also points out what Bahktin pointed out in his theories, that we must anticipate what is going to come next in our conversations. J.F. Lyotard, a French scholar, compares conversations to a game, as there are rules we follow just as there are in a game. The chapter later discusses the ideas of Laurel Richardson. She believes stories are the main way humans organize their experiences into something meaningful that other people will listen to. She goes on to say that narrative is both a mode of reasoning and a mode of representation. People comprehend their experiences in the form of a story and also tell of their stories to other people in the form of stories. Both modes are rational ways of making sense of something. In our advertisement, an abstract is seen after the host, Monica Blake, comes on stage and tells the audience that "no one likes to play with dirty equipment". An orientation is seen in the ad when the camera focuses on the men in the audience, while the women on stage wash the different sports equipment. This continues when the host actually uses the AXE product on stage to demonstrate how it works. The complicating action is seen in the commercial as they go through different sizes and ages of sports equipment.There are a few evaluations in the ad, seen after each of the different balls have been cleaned and polished. The attitude of the narrator is not of surprise at the cleansing of the balls, but she takes more of an "I told you so" stance on the product . She is very confident that the AXE gel will work. The resolution of the story comes when the old man steps on stage. He feels as if there is nothing that can be done about his balls, but after the AXE product has been applied, they are like brand new again. The coda can be found in the ad when the host makes her call to action to the audience. She lets the audience know where to go if they would like to purchase any of the AXE products and recommends anybody with dirty balls should definitely give it a try.

Chapter 13 10/13

In this chapter, the ideas of Russian communication theorist Mikhail Bahktin are discussed. His theory of dialogism focuses on the two-way aspect of communication. Dialogism is made up of dialogue, which is the basic unit of communication. When we speak with other people, we must remember what has already been said in the conversation in order to know what we are going to say later in the conversation. The chapter later discusses another of Bahktin’s ideas, intertexuality. This theory believes that there is a strong relationship between a text being produced at any time with texts or any media that has been produced throughout history. We may be conscious of these earlier texts, however other times artists are influenced by these texts unconsciously. I don’t believe a work can ever not be intertextual, as I think all media is influenced in some way by past forms of communication. However, I cannot find how our advertisement has any intertextuality. I also believe there is dialogue in our advertisement, as it is a basic idea of communication. The commercial takes into account cultural norms/ beliefs and plays against the norms by creating this sarcastic skit. Also, from what I understand about dialogue, isn’t it considered dialogue when there is a two-way conversation between people? In this case, our advertisement is full of dialogue, as it contains many conversations between the host and the audience of the game show.

Chapter 12 10/11

In this chapter, both M.H. Abrams and Arthur Berger discuss their models on art and society. Abrams begins by pointing out that most people focus on one of four elements in the total situation of art and tend to neglect other possibly important ideas. The first of Abrams elements is work, which is the product itself. The second element in his model is the artist, or the producer of the work. The third element is a very broad term. It is the subject of the work, defined by the term universe. Abrams argues that the universe, or subject, is taken from things in relation to the existing circumstances. The final element in Abrams model is the audience, anybody to whom the work is addressed or whoever the works becomes available to. Abrams model is drawn out in the shape of a triangle with whatever is being discussed or needed to be explained in the center, depicted as the word “work”. Arthur Berger has also created his own model for art and society that is very similar to Abrams. However, Berger adds media to his model and also replaces the word universe with society because he feels it is too broad of a word. By adding media to the model, Berger argues that there are five elements that one deals with when considering mass-mediated communication. Also, to make it easier for readers to understand his concepts, Berger uses words that start with “A”, except for media. In Berger’s model, there is an artist (sender of the message), Art (the thing that conveys a message), Audience (those who receive the message), America (a society in which the message is interpreted in), and a Medium (how the audience receives the message). In Berger’s model, all of the points are connected and are capable of influencing one another. Both Abram’s and Berger’s model are very similar to Laswell’s model of communication. Laswell’s Who, is the artist in both models. His Says What, is the work in Abrams model and the Artwork in Berger’s model. His In Which Channel, is not in Abram’s model, but is Medium in Berger’s model. Laswell’s To Whom, is compared to the audience in both models, while the With What Effect, is the Universe in Abram’s model and the America (society) in Berger’s model.

Chapter 11 10/6

In this chapter, we are introduced to Harold Laswell’s formula and its similarities when compared to Jakobson’s model of the communication process. First, Laswell’s formula is a brief statement that can be used to describe an act of communication by answering the following the questions: Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, With What Effect. The Who question of the Laswell formula is the addresser in Jakobson’s model of communication, while the Says What question is the message or the content. In Which Channel refers to the medium or contact, while the To Whom question is the receiver of the message. The final question in Laswell’s formula is With What Effect, referring to the functions of the message being sent. One of the key terms in this passage is formula, defined as a statement expressing some fundamental truth or principle. Another key term, models, is the abstract presentation of processes that occur in the world and therefore have their values and limitations. A certain value that a model contains is they provide an easy-to-understand overview of what is being described. One limitation is that they tend to simplify information too much, leaving key ideas out. Laswell also discusses phatic communication, which is used to express emotions rather than communicative information. This communication is not based on persuasion. An example would be a man grunting in the gym while lifting heavy weights.

Chapter 10 10/6

In this chapter, Roman Jakobson’s model of a communication process is discussed. He suggests that there are 6 fundamental units in this communication process including the addresser, message, addressee, context, contact, and code. The addresser (sender) sends a message to the addressee (receiver). In order for the addressee to understand this message it must have some sort of context that is either verbal or capable of being verbalized. It must also have a code that is able to be understood by both the addresser and the addressee. Finally, the message must contain a contact, or a channel in which the message is sent. Author Robert Scholes adds to the discussion by saying that although the message unites a sender and receiver, the message is not always the same as the meaning. Therefore, someone must interpret the meaning of the message. This occurs a lot with mass media, as we receive messages from advertisements and must decipher the meaning of the message being sent. Later in the passage, Jakobson discusses the emotive, or expressive function. This function focuses on the addresser and interprets the speaker’s attitude on what he is speaking about. Jakobson believes there are messages that simply establish, prolong or discontinue a conversation, as well as check the attention level of the listener. There is also a referential function, which is defined in the book as the “accessory participation of the other functions in such messages must be taken into account by the observant linguist”. I don’t understand this last definition, so I am hoping we go over it in class.

Chapter 8 10/4

In this chapter, Claude Levi-Strauss discusses some of his many ideas on the unconscious elements of the human psyche. He stresses the fact that we do all of the things we do because we are either blind to the unconscious ideas within our minds or that we simply refuse to recognize the way we do certain things. The chapter later discusses the ideas of another thinker, Franz Boas. He argues that we don’t learn to speak our language until someone writes a grammar for the language. We learn to speak by listening to our parents or watching the television, which makes sense of how we learn to speak the language we speak when we are young. I have always wondered why we don’t speak a different language, but the idea of learning a language by listening to a person speak the language and deciphering what is correct and incorrect makes sense. There are two key terms mentioned in the chapter, the first being anthropology, which is defined as the study of culture or civilization. The other key term mentioned is culture, which is “the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

Chapter 7 10/4

This chapter is centered on the ideas of Mary Douglas, one of the most important social anthropologists of our time and Claude Levi-Strauss. Douglas once again states that the meaning of a word is relational and that it stems from where the word is found in a sentence and the context in which we find it. Douglas stresses the theories of Levi-Strauss and how he believes the mind receives any experience in a structured form; it is human nature that most all of these forms are unconscious. Another reoccurring theme in the book is that ideas come in pairs of opposites, once again stated by Levi-Strauss. We are also introduced to the idea of structuralism, which analyzes different phenomena in terms of their basic units and the way these units are assembled. Structuralists believe that the relationship between elements in something like a myth (something that we are unaware of) is extremely important. According to Levi-Strauss, “In both language and myth, the separate units have no meaning by themselves, they acquire it only because of the way they are assembled.

Chapter 6 and Commercial 9/30

In this chapter, Basil Bernstein discusses his ideas on restricted and elaborated codes in the speech of different classes of people. He argues that there is a difference in the way middle and upper class people talk to their children than the way working class people talk to their children. He also argues that these two “codes” have an effect on a how a child develops and thinks of their future and what they may be able to achieve. In short, elaborated code is used by the upper and middle class; it is much more complex in grammar and sentence structure, while vocabulary is more varied. Restricted code is used by the working class and is simple in grammar and sentence structure, while it tends to be more emotional rather than logical. Restricted code of speech gives the working class children a little less sense of possibility as Bernstein believes it shapes a person’s behavior. Working class children may settle for less in life with a rather simplistic outlook on everything. It should be noted that the restricted mindset makes it difficult for middle and upper class people to deal with the working class because of the difference of codes in the language being used. Our group is using the Axe Clean Your Balls commercial and I believe the ad is using a restricted code of speech. There is a low level of conceptualization being used in the commercial as it does not take a genius to figure out what the actors in the ad are trying to get across. The grammar is also very simple along with the sentence structure. Also, the context shapes the meaning in this commercial, rather than having the meaning elaborated verbally. The ad is targeting a younger, more open minded audience, as older people may find this type of commercial more immature than funny.

Chapter 5 9/28

In this chapter, Jonathan Culler states, “Where there are signs, there is a system.” By this he means that for signs to be meaningful to one another, there must be some type of society that teaches people how these signs are supposed to be interpreted. In simpler terms, the meaning of signs is not determined naturally, but by society. One interesting point made by author Karl Mannheim states that individuals do not do the thinking, individuals participate in thinking further what other men have thought before them. People come into a situation with knowledge of a certain topic and further elaborate on this topic based on inherited modes of response. Emile Durkheim makes another good point when he states individuals are in society, while society is in individuals. We all may have our own ideas and opinions, however these ideas and opinions are all shaped by the society we live in. The author goes on to argue that the “self-made” man, completely independent from society, is a falsehood and does not exist, while the egalitarian or individualistic society of the past overlooked the importance of social institutions.

Chapter 2 9/28

In this chapter, Ferdinand Saussure, one of the founders of semiotics (a science that studies the life of signs within society), discusses how signs work in regards to language. The linguist begins to explain the difference between language, which he describes as a system of signs that expresses ideas, and speech, which cannot be classified. Language unites a concept and a sound-image, defined as the impression a sound makes on our senses. The combination of both a concept and sound-image makes up a sign. Saussure then goes on to explain, “the relationship that exists between a signified and signifier are arbitrary and based on convention.” By this, he means that the meaning of words not only change over time, but based on each person as well. This brings me to a couple of the key words in the chapter: signified (concept) and signifier (sound-image). Saussure believes words get their meaning based on being opposite of other words. If Saussure’s theories are correct, language structures the way we think as human beings. In the ad I brought to class, the signifier would be the employees pictured in the computer screen. This signified the fact that Dell will always be there to provide customer service for a user of their product.

Chapter 9 9/26

In this chapter, the authors discuss the four main kinds of speech that play a role in our thinking. The first type of speech described is metaphoric, which is what we do most of our thinking in. This type of speech is based on analogy and similarity, where we talk about one thing in terms of another. Another type of speech is simile, which is a weaker form of an analogy. The third type of speech is metonymy, which is based on association. As we grow up, we learn to associate certain things with other things. An example of this would be associating the NIKE symbol with athletics. Another example of metonymy is associating a Rolex watch with wealth. A form of metonymy in which a part is used to stand for the whole, or the whole for a part, is called synecdoche. The example given in the book involving synecdoche describes how when we think of the Pentagon, we think of the entire military.

Chapter 4 9/26

In this passage, Sigmund Freud discusses many of his ideas. One of the main points he made involved the three levels of consciousness and how it can be represented by an iceberg. The part of the iceberg that we can see represents consciousness, while the part of the iceberg below the water that we can still see represents pre-consciousness. The majority of the iceberg buried in the darkness represents the unconscious, which is material in our minds, but not accessible to us. According to Freud, the unconscious material is very important as it shapes many of the things we do as human beings. Freud makes an excellent point here, as we do many things that just come naturally and we cannot help but do. As Freud later says, “We cannot control this unconscious power within us.” Freud goes on to suggest that there are three forces operating the human psyche. These forces are the id, representing list and desire, the superego representing conscience and guilt and finally the ego, which tries to mediate between the id and superego. It’s important to note that all three of these forces are unconscious. Other key points made in the passage are displacement and condensation. Both of these terms deal with how we block or mask sexual content in our dreams that would otherwise alert our superego and cause us to wake up. In displacement, we use substitute symbols to avoid alarming the superego. Such symbols include sticks or knives for male genitalia, while gardens or flowers are used for female genitalia. In condensation, we combine things to mask their sexual content. Although many of Freud’s ideas are far-fetched, they continue to play an important role in the thinking of many scholars today.

Chapter 3 9/23

Our choice of words is very important. Words we choose to use may mean one thing to us, however are completely different in meaning to somebody else. The meaning of a word may change over time as well. An example of this would be the word fresh. Hundreds of years ago and still to this day, the word fresh was used to describe something that wasn’t stale or something new. The term is still used in that sense today, however it can also be used to describe something that looks very appealing, such as an outfit that a person is wearing. The author mentions that it is important to recognize that the meanings of words are based on convention and are not natural or written in stone. Definitions of words change over the years and new words come into existence, which is one of the reasons why dictionary makers are forced to create new editions of their dictionaries.

Chapter 1 9/23

"Whatever else we are, above all else we are communicating animals, and one of the most important ways we communicate with one another is through language and words," writes the author of this chapter. The section goes on to discuss how we learn a language when we are very young and start to speak recognizable words by the age of one. A key term from this chapter is phenomes, which are the basic units of sounds by which morphemes, words and sentences are represented. This fact leads to one of the more interesting parts of the chapter, in which the author points out that there are hundreds of thousands of words in the English language, however all of these words are created out of just three dozen sounds. This was a very interesting point being made because it shows just how complex the English language can be, yet how simple it is at the same time. I also thought it was very fascinating when the author pointed out that once a child masters a language they will be able to speak and create sentences they’ve never heard or seen. Language is the basis and cornerstone of our culture and it affects everything we do in life.
3 words that play an important role in the history of our country:
• Life
• Liberty
• Happiness
3 words that play an important role in my life:
• Opportunity
• Hope
• Determination
2 words that have changed meaning over time:
• Hot
• Fresh
2 words that are new and popular right now:
• Sexting
• Tweeting

Chapter 25 9/19

In this chapter, Anthony Cortese begins by explaining the term provocateur. The term provocateur is used to describe the female models that Cortese feels are being taken advantage of by the advertising industry. He describes these women as unreal, rather freakish, long-legged, size four, semi-anorexic models. This type of advertisement that provocatively portrays these models causes many women much anxiety as they can, often times, never live up to the level of perfection seen in the picture. Women become extremely afraid when they feel they do not compare to these “perfect” models because many believe men are only attracted to this type of flawlessness. The author also points out that many of these pictures can be altered to become more perfect. Also, most of the money people spend on cosmetics goes directly into the advertising efforts and packaging. Only eight cents of every dollar is spent on the actual ingredients involved in the cosmetic. When people use cosmetics, they get into a mode of thinking that a certain makeup or perfume will turn them into a god or goddess. Once a person starts thinking this way, they begin to think “magically” about products and if they feel any lack of success, the blame falls on using the wrong product. After this occurs, the endless search for perfection goes on and on.

Chapter 20 9/19

In this chapter, the author discusses how important fashion is to some people and how people are always changing their style to keep up with the times. Rubinstein also mentions the idea of “gender scripts”, which help identify social expectations for sex-appropriate behavior. It has been proven that as early as two years old, a child can classify a person’s gender based on what they are wearing. These “gender scripts” create two different social categories involving men and women. Men learn to be more straightforward by manipulating, grasping and holding, while women learn to convey their bodies as being more “delicate and precious”. Rubinstein also includes the ideas of psychologist C.J. Flugel, who argues that people’s fashion is tied to their sexuality. Women’s fashion is meant to display their “suitability for sexual intercourse”, while men’s fashion is meant to elicit sexual excitement in women. The excerpt goes on to include the work of another fashion expert who argues that fashion plays a role in the hierarchy system. Women’s clothing is based on a “seductive principle” and is designed to make women desirable to men, ultimately giving them a secondary status.

You Tube Videos 9/16

The first video describes research done by the University of Toronto, which found that common facial expressions such as fear or disgust not only show how a person is feeling, but also alter the environment around oneself. According to the researchers these common emotions were found to adjust the way we use our senses. A question being asked during the research process was whether or not a person can see better when they feel fearful of something, causing their mouths and eyes to open wide. After performing a number of tests, the researchers found that open eyes and mouths allowed more of the world in, quicker visual recognition of objects and also increased air intake without extra effort. The video goes on to describe that these findings are consistent with the fact that the expression of fear improves information gathering in reaction to something that might harm you, while the expression of disgust hinders sensory input. The second video is a very insightful look into how to spot people that are lying to you. In the video, a polygraph examiner interviews people and points out certain signs that may indicate whether or not that person is lying. According to the polygraph examiner, “eyes are the windows to the soul”. He also explains that if a person is looking up and to the right that person is making up something because they are visually thinking about something that only exists in their imagination. Looking up and to the left means that the person is trying to remember something, however this formula is opposite for left-handed people. Shifty eyes, leaning back in a chair, sitting to the side, crossed arms or keeping the hands tightly gripped are also signs that may detect lying.

Chapter 19

After reading this chapter , I found a person’s semiotics are always sending messages, with our facial expressions, body language, clothes, use of language, etc., and others are reading those messages, while at the same time they are sending us messages about themselves. The facial expression a person has tells others many things about them. The chapter lists many of these things that include affective state, cognitive activity, temperament and personality, truthfulness, and psychopathology. Through basic research, scientists have found that facial expressions can identify when specific mental processes are occurring. Facial expressions also hold promise for applied medical research. When a person reads a face they look for certain signs that express or indicate emotions, moods or other phenomena. The author states that we read a face when we read a person, however most of us are amateurs and don’t really know how to do it. Facial expressions provide much more information about a person than many people realize and can be a tool that creates many opportunities in different areas.

Chapter 18

After reading Chapter 18, I found that a person’s nonverbal clues are something that contributes greatly to the process of communication. Nonverbal communication may include facial expressions, postures, movements and gestures. When a person’s words contradict what their nonverbal actions are saying, others may be suspicious of what one is actually trying to communicate. The chapter also discusses the three primary ways a person communicates nonverbally, which are liking or disliking, dominance, and responsiveness. Psychologists believe people look for reinforcement through communication in their basic values and beliefs. If a person likes or dislikes somebody’s actions (nonverbal actions), then they transfer those feelings over to whatever it is they were talking about. The second primary nonverbal dimension is dominance, which refers to a controlling versus a submissive attitude. An example of dominance would be a king’s noble postures contrasted to a shrinking posture of a submissive person. The third nonverbal dimension is responsiveness, which refers to the extent of awareness of and the reaction to another. Nonverbal communication is extremely important as it shapes the way a person will interpret and respond to what one says.